A Contrastive Study between Chinese & English Language

As you know, our native language Chinese is quite different from English. There is really a big gap between the characteristics of the two languages. In order to learn the translation course better, we have to study the comparison between the source language and the target language. Since all the theories, methods, techniques concerning English-Chinese translation are based on the comparison, it is very important, so to say, to master the languages’ peculiarities.

Language Families ( 语系) English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family (印欧语系). Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family (汉藏语系). It is well know that English has the richest vocabulary of any European language. On the basis of Angles’ language (Anglo-Saxon), English, a hybrid, was built by absorbing words in various languages.

汉语 汉语—汉藏语系，约有6000多年的历时， 《康熙字典》收纳了4.9万个字的汉子。《汉语大字典》收纳约5.6万字。台湾1973年出版的《大汉和辞典》收词55万余条。 汉字的构词能力强。曾有人作了粗略统计，汉语中但是表示手的动作的词就有200多个，单“一”字开头的成语就有5472条。 据称原计划出版的》中山大辞典曾包括60余万条。

英语 英语—印欧语系，英语是拼音文字。 英语的历史起源于第五世纪中叶朱特人、撒克逊人及盎格鲁人的入侵，到现在已有1500多年的历史了。英语的发展经历了三个时期： 古英语时期（449-1100）； 中古英语时期（1100-1500） 现代英语时期（1500-现在） 由于外来的侵略，英语是欧洲语言中变化最大、词汇成分最复杂，词汇量最丰富的一种语言。《牛津英语词典》有古英语、现代英语和成语共40多万条。1976年出版的《英国百科全书》认为英语词汇已经超过50万个。也有不少学者估计，英语词汇总量是100万个以上。

Latin: pen, pencil, cup, butter, silk French: pork, feast, sir, noble Italian: piano, solo, studio, opera, umbrella Spanish: cargo, cigarette, cigar Greek: paper, alphabet, dialogue, comedy Chinese: tea, chow mein, kowtow, toufu

Lexical Comparison between Chinese and English (词汇对比) The major ways of word-building in English are composition(合成), conversion(词性转化), and derivation (affixation衍生). And in Chinese we have the same major ways.

English: Composition: motherland, blackboard, handwriting, silkworm, easy-going, home-made, do-it-yourself Conversion: paper the window, empty the basket, elbow one’s way, ups and downs Derivation: able unable, take mistake hope hopeless hopelessness

Chinese: Composition: 并列式：语言，改革，树立，遥远，左右，出入，好歹 偏正式：学分，本科，红糖，笑声，新衣 主谓式（主从式）：耳闻，目睹，脸红，胆小，月明 动宾式：思甜，攻关，灭火，开车，踢球 补充式：提前，救活，改善，说明，调好 重叠式：平平安安，高高兴兴，懒洋洋，亮晶晶，方方面面

Conversion: 一棵大树， 十年树人 出售油漆， 油漆门窗 鸡鸭鱼肉， 鱼肉百姓 安全第一， 不太安全 今天真热， 把饭热一下 Derivation: 前缀 （Prefix）： 超—超人，超额，超支，超音速 非—非人，非常，非原则，非正式 无—无视，无限，无线电，无名氏，无疑 汉语中的“非”、“无”相当于英语中的前缀un-, in-, il- 和后缀-less

反—反动，反攻，反驳，反问，反腐败 可—可亲，可爱，可口，可调整，可怜兮兮 后缀 (Suffix): 手—助手，舵手，选手，帮手，一把手 年—幼年，晚年，青少年，周年，光年 子—金子，票子，耗子，妻子，爱面子 头—外头，对头，拳头，风头，枕头，苗头

Semantic Comparison between Chinese and English (词义对比) A. The meanings of the word (词的意义方面)： 1、英语中有些词所表示的意义，在汉语里可以找到完全对应的词来表达。（semantic correspondence） 专用名词、术语和事物名称 。 The U.S. State Department (美国国务院)； 萨斯SARS （Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome）； Aids (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) ； 直升飞机；太平洋

2、英语中有些词与汉语中有些词在词义上只有部分对应。(partly semantic correspondence) 大象、龙 gun，uncle，aunt，bother，morning 3、英语中有些词所表示的意义，目前在汉语里还找不到最后确定的对应词来表达。（semantic zero） mascon (mass concentration)（表示月球表层下高密度的）物质聚积 overkill过度杀伤力，现又指表示宣传活动等方面不必要的过度行为，plumber特工，又称“管子工”（美国调查政府雇员泄密事件的特工）。 文房四宝： the four treasures of the study (writing brush, inkstick, inkstone and paper) 乌纱帽： an official post

4、英语中有许多词一词多义，其所表示的各个意义，分别与汉语中几个不同的词或词组对应。 1、a soft drug 2、soft intelligence 3、soft money 4、soft drink 5、soft fire 6、soft water 1. 毒性较轻的麻醉剂；软性麻醉毒品 2. 非百分之百可靠的，不充分的情报 3. 纸币 4. 软饮料 5. 文火 6. 软水(不含矿物盐类而易溶解肥皂的水)

B. The possible collocation of the word (词的搭配能力方面)： 英语和汉语在词的搭配能力方面有很大的差异。英语的搭配能力比汉语强。 cut (wheat, finger-nails, cake ) （英译汉时须考虑译文中词的搭配必须符合汉语的习惯 )

C. The word order (词序方面)： 英、汉语句子中主要成分主语、谓语动词、宾语或表语的词序基本上是一致的。但是各种定语的位置和各种状语的次序在英、汉语中则有同有异，变化较多，所以英汉词序的比较主要指定语、状语位置异同的比较。 The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. 对于那些只想毕业后找份工作的学生来说, 压力也一样不小。

1. Hypotactic vs Paratactic (形合与意合) / (主从结构与并列结构) （前一个词指英语，后一个词指汉语） Comparison of sentence structure between Chinese and English （句式对比）p.38 1. Hypotactic vs Paratactic (形合与意合) / (主从结构与并列结构) （前一个词指英语，后一个词指汉语） English hypotactic Chinese paratactic As E. A. Nida points out in his “Translating Meaning”, …so far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.

何为形合、意合？（以英语句子为例） Hypotaxis: The dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses arranged with connectives. E.g. : I shall despair if you don’t come. (The American Heritage Dictionary, p.649 ) Parataxis: The arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them. E.g.: The rain fell; the river flooded; the houses were washed away. (The world Book Dictionary, p. 1513)

形合与意合是英汉在语言学上最重要的一个区别。 英语：形合 hypotaxis,长句多，强调结构的完整性和形态的严谨性，结构严密紧凑，主次分明，以动词为核心，依靠代词、介词、连词建立骨架并将句子串起，结构严密紧凑，逻辑性强。 汉语：意合 parataxis（形散），强调内容和表意的完整性，常靠语意的逻辑将句子串起，常以名词为核心，可以缺损主语、动词、连接词等，看似无序，但形散神聚，节奏感强，很多情况下要靠听者（读者）通过语境悟出字里行间的含义。 翻译时： 英译汉时，往往要先分析句子的结构、形式，才能确定句子的功能、意义； 汉译英时，往往要先分析句子的功能、意义，才能确定句子的结构、形式。

1）汉语句子多成分残缺，语义模糊, 靠读者悟出字里行间的含义: 枯藤老树昏鸦,小桥流水人家,古道西风瘦马。夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯。

Autumn Thoughts Withered vines, olden tree, evening crows; Tiny bridge, flowing brook, hamlet(小村) homes; Ancient road, wind from west, bony horse; The sun is setting, Broken man, far from home, roam and roams. ( tr. 赵甄陶) Autumn Crows hovering over rugged(不平的) old trees wreathed(环绕) with rotten vine—— the day is about done. Yonder(远处) is a tiny bridge over a sparkling stream, and on the far bank, a pretty little village. But the traveler has to go on down this ancient road, the west wind moaning, his bony horse groaning, Trudging(跋涉) towards the sinking sun, farther and farther away from home. ( tr. 翁显良)

2）汉语句子多无主语(zero subject)： 要吃有吃，要穿有穿。 We have enough to eat and sufficient to put on. 不知苦中苦，哪知甜中甜？ I have made proposals, but in vain; I have made attempts, but without success. If you have never tasted the bitterness of gall, how can you know the sweetness of honey? 不到长城非好汉。 He who has never been to the Great Wall is not a true man 玩火自焚 。  Whoever plays with fire will perish by fire.

3）无谓语动词： 天高云淡。 The sky is high and the clouds are pale. 房间干干净净。 The room is neat and tidy. 这箱子八十磅。 This box weighs eighty pounds. 他上海人。 He is from Shanghai. 我儿子二十岁。 My son is 20 years old.

3）无宾语： 电影很有趣，我一定要去看。 The film is interesting. I’ll go and see it. 蛇在冬天藏起来。 Snakes hide themselves in winter.

4）无连接词： （因为）他不老实，（所以）我们不相信他。 Because he is not honest, we can’t trust him. 人不犯我，我不犯人。 We will not attack unless we are attacked. 说是说了，没有结果。 I have made proposals, but they proved futile. 抓住了主要矛盾，一切问题就可以迎刃而解。 Once the principal contradiction is grasped, all problems can be readily solved. 他不来，我不去。 If he won’t come here, I’ll not go there. 聪明一世，糊涂一时。 Smart as a rule, but this time a fool.

有饭大家吃。 Let everybody share the food if there is any. 不到黄河心不死。 Until all is over, ambition never die. 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。(朱自清《匆匆》) Swallows may have gone，but there is a time of return；willow trees may have died back，but there is a time of regreening；peach blossoms may have fallen，but they will bloom again．

5）逻辑矛盾的表达： 晒衣服 晒太阳 to sun one’s clothes to bask in the sun 吃苹果 吃食堂 to eat an apple to have one’s meals in the canteen 打扫房间 打扫卫生 to clean a room to do some cleaning 恢复健康 恢复疲劳 to recover one’s health to get refreshed 扶贫  poverty reduction /poverty alleviation 

6）多余的词语： 不必要的浪费 unnecessary waste 不切实际的幻想 unpractical illusion, fancy, fantasy 毫无根据的毁谤 slander 他所担任的工作 his work 用鼻子闻了一下 take a smell at 脑子里想了想 think over

“彻底粉碎” completely smash “smash”本意就是break completely，已经包含了“彻底”的意思，加上completely语气反而弱化。 “完全征服" completely conquer “conquer”不可能是partly。 “极为可耻" extremely shameless，“shameless”已是最高级。 “伟大的历史性转变" This is a great historic change。在英语里，historic已经包含了great的意思。

2. Complex vs Simplex （复杂句式与简单句式） As English is hypotactic, more often than not, syntactic devices are employed in the formation of sentences. In normal writings people use much more complex sentences than simple ones. The English complex sentences are often like chains with clauses linking clauses. On the other hand, the Chinese sentences or clauses tend to be short and simple in structure. They are flowing and simplex with one clause following the other rather in a line. 英语多长句、复杂句，汉语多短句、流水句。

English sentences are tree-like sentence structure (树式结构) with different parts connected like branches and sub-branches to the trunk line. Chinese sentences are bamboo-like sentence structure(竹式结构) with different sections linked yet separated. 英语是语法句，句式繁杂，但主从有序，逻辑性强；汉语是语义句，句式简洁，但结构松散，逻辑性差。 翻译要点：化英语长句为汉语的短句。

英语重形合以及英语各种替代词与关系词的广泛运用，导致英语较多出现“多枝共干”式长句，复合句。而汉语正好相反，多用短句，简单句。 As we lived near the road, we often had the traveler or stranger visit us to taste our gooseberry wine(酸果酒), for which we had great reputation, and I confess, with the veracity（真实性） of an historian, that I never knew one of them to find fault with it. 本句的主干为：we often had the traveler or stranger visit us; 其余借助as，to, for which, and, with, that 等词与主干一起构成长句。 其汉语意思为： 我们就住在路边。过路人或外乡人常到我们家，尝尝我们家酿的酸果酒。这种酒很有名气。我敢说，尝过的人，从没有挑剔过。我这话像历史学家的话一样靠得住。

一个英国人，不会说中国话，有一次在中国旅行。 An Englishman who could not speak Chinese was once traveling in China. 我有个问题弄不懂，想请教你，你能回答吗？ Can you answer a question which I want to ask and which is puzzling me? 蒲松龄生活在清朝，贪官污吏肆虐，真正有才华的人得不到重用。 Pu Songling lived in a time when most of the Qing officials were so unjust and corrupt that true talents without money to pay a bribe could never hope to be given the opportunity to demonstrate their learning.

3. Top-heavy/ Lion-head vs End-weight/ Peacock-tail （头重与尾重句型） 在表达多层逻辑思维时，英语往往是判断或结论、表态等在前，事实或描写等在后，即重心在前； In an English sentence, the shorter elements usually go before longer ones in arrangement order, and the whole sentence looks like a pyramid. That also explains why there are so many inverted sentences in English. 汉语则是由因到果、由假设到推论、由事实到结论，按事情发生的先后顺序进行描述, 重心在最后。 The arrangement of a Chinese sentence seems quite the opposite, so it looks like an inverted pyramid or triangle.

Nothing has happened since we parted。 我们别后没发生什么事情. 他因为病了，所以没来上课。 He didn’t come to school because he was ill. It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife. 一条举世公认的真理，那就是，凡有钱的单身汉，总想娶位太太。 凡是有钱的单身汉，总想娶位太太，这是一条举世公认的真理。（更符合汉语表达习惯）

Soccer is a difficult sport Soccer is a difficult sport.（1）A player must be able to run steadily without rest.（2）Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head.（3）Players must be willing to bang into and be banged into by others.（4）They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles. 足球运动员必须能不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双脚和肌肉疼痛，所以说，足球运动是一项难度大运动。

4. Subject-Predicate（英语：主语-谓语型） vs Topic-Comment（汉语：话题-评论型） Compare the sentence structures of the two languages: 那所房子你们早该修了。 You should have repaired the house. 英语这门语言，学会它可不容易。 It is by no means easy to learn the English language. 这里建大桥，我看行不通。 I don’t think it workable to build a bridge here.

5. Static vs Dynamic (静态与动态) English tends to use less verbs than Chinese. In a simple English sentence or in an English clause, only one verb is used as the predicate of the sentence or clause. In a Chinese sentence, a number of verbs can be used as its predicate at the same time, so we may say that the Chinese is rather “dynamic” while the English is “static”.

A mastery of Chinese and English is essential for E-C or C-E translation. 做英汉/汉英翻译必须掌握好汉语与英语。 Up the street they went, past stores, across a broad square and then entered a huge building. 他们朝大街走去，经过许多商店，穿过一个大广场，然后进入一座大厦。 再走几步就到实验大楼了。 A few steps will bring you to the laboratory building./ Walk a few steps and you will reach the lab building. 我国科学研究发展的特点是理论联系实际。 The development of scientific research in our country is characterized by the combination/ link of theory with practice.

Exercises: Inspiration is the number one cause of greatness. If information is power, then inspiration must be the power of our potential. The power that moves us from the systematic to the spontaneous. From idea to results.（静态英语） 灵感--伟大成就之源。如果说信息为力量的话，那么灵感便是一种使我们从按部就班到挥洒自如、从构思意念到取得成果的潜能。

6. Impersonal vs Personal (Inanimate vs Animate) （物称与人称） 英语多用非人称主语impersonal subject(又叫无灵主语inanimate subject)，汉语多用人称主语personal subject （又叫有灵主语animate subject）。（原因：汉人重人/人伦，西方重物/自然） In an English sentence, the choice of its subject often falls on the inanimate or the thing that is not living. For example, it would be preferable to say “There are eight people in his family.” than “He has eight people in his family.” This special feature of English is especially shown in writings in formal style such as news reports or scientific essays. On the other hand, we Chinese tend to pick up animate things or persons to function as the subject of a sentence.

There is a touch of rough poetry about him. 他这人还有那么点诗意呢。 The morning sun greeted us as we came out on deck. 登上甲板，我们便看见了一轮旭日。 又过了几个月，我看见他们手上戴了戒指 Months later, rings appeared glistering on their fingers. 黄昏到来，他仍在街上徘徊。 Dusk found him wandering in the street. 他想起了母亲，才鼓足干劲继续干下去。 The thought of his mother gave him the strength to go on doing it.

我突然产生了一个可怕的想法。 A terrible thought suddenly struck me. 她独处时感到一种特别的安宁。 A strange peace came over her when she was alone. 2001年中国成功加入世贸。 The year 2001 saw China’s entry into WTO. 他（徐霞客）…… 发现了许多奇山秀景；他常常选择不同的时间和季节多次重游各地名山…… The reward for his work was the discovery of many fantastically beautiful scenes. Famous mountains in various places would find him coming back for revisits during different seasons.

Exercises” 因为天气太糟，我们未能成行。 a. *Because of the poor weather, we did not go. b. Bad weather prevented us from going. 一个小学女生失踪了，教师们非常担忧。 a. *A schoolgirl disappeared, and all the teachers were very much worried about her. b. The disappearance of a schoolgirl worried all the teachers. 他通晓多种不常用的外国语，这使我们感到惊讶。 a. *He is familiar with many rarely used languages; we feel surprised about the fact. b. His familiarity with many rarely used languages surprised us all.

7. Passive & Active （被动与主动） Passives of various forms are frequently used in English. By contrast, active forms are often used in Chinese. 必须找到新的能源。 New sources of energy must be found. 这个问题正在研究。 The problem is now being studied. 据估计，今年的股市将会上扬。 It is estimated that the stock market will be on the rise. 一匹马骑两个人。 Two persons rode one horse. 饭做好了。 The meal has been cooked.

8. Substitutive & Repetitive (替代与重复) Repetition of words in English is generally more or less abnormal and objectionable except that it is rhetorical or significant. To avoid repetition, English often employs substitution, ellipsis, variation, and some other devices. 英语忌重复，汉语喜重复 （汉语通过重复，形成音韵上的美学节奏，英语主张言贵简洁(Brevity is the soul of wit）。 他喜欢跳舞，我也喜欢跳舞。 He likes dancing and so do I.(替代) 我们的民族将再也不是被人欺负的民族了。 Ours will no longer be a nation subject to insult and humiliation.(替代)

We can get rid of a bad style and keep the good.(省略) 我们要相信群众，依赖群众。 我们能够去掉不不良作风，保持优良作风。 We can get rid of a bad style and keep the good.(省略) 我们要相信群众，依赖群众。 We must have faith in and rely on the masses.(省略) 我们的政策，不光要使领导知道，干部知道，还要使广大群众知道。 Our policy must be made known not only to the leaders and to the cadres but also to the broad masses.(省略) Reading makes a full man; conference a ready man; writing an exact man. (省略) 读书使人充实,讨论使人机智,写作使人准确. Reading exercises one's eyes; Speaking, one's tongue; while writing, one's mind. (省略) 阅读训练人的眼睛，说话训练人的口齿，写作训练人的思维。

John’s bought himself a new Ford. He practically lives in the car.（变换） 约翰给自己买了一部新的福特牌汽车，他几乎就住在这部汽车里。 An electron tube is generally used for amplification, and vacuum tube is another name for this device. 电子管通常用来放大，而真空管则是电子管的另一名称。

9. Flexible Order vs Fixed Order 英语语序变换多，汉语语序较固定 英语为了获得句子形式上的平衡或修辞上的强调效果，经常将句中的某些成分的位置进行调整，如主谓倒装、宾语后置、或与其它成分的位置调换等，以产生修辞上的生动效果。 这种句子成分的位置调换在汉语中比较少见。

Chinese order of linguistic elements 汉语语序 Relatively fixed （相对固定） A. order of time （时间先后顺序） 古今、先后、早晚、冬去春来、去教室看书 B. order of space （空间大小顺序） 大小、宽窄、粗细、大同小异、长话短说、 中国上海康桥路1009号 C. order of importance （重轻顺序） 天地、君臣、优劣、国破家亡、天长地久 D. order of logic (cause-effect, condition-result) （逻辑顺序：因果，条件-结果顺序） 志同道合，友谊才会长久。 天下雨，运动会延期了。

English order of linguistic elements 英语语序 Relatively flexible （相对灵活） resulting from the use of inflections and connectives the Russian people the people of Russia the people living in Russia the people who live in Russia

志同道合，友谊才会长久。 Friendship will last only if it is based on a common goal. Only if friendship is based on a common goal, it will last. 天下雨，运动会延期了。 The sports meeting was postponed because of rain. Because of rain, the sports meeting was postponed.

Please compare: (Pay attention to the Chinese order of time and space) We saw many signs of occupation while strolling along a street past a major concentration of the huts not far away from the Central Avenue. 译文一：我们看到很多住人的迹象，当漫步街头走过一个很大的棚户集中地，离中央大道不远。 译文二：我们漫步街头，在中央大道附近看见一个很大的棚户区，有很多迹象表明茅棚里还住了人。

10. 英语定语多后置，汉语定语多前置 1）副词： 那边那个男孩 楼上的房间 the boy there the room upstairs 回家的路上 on the way home 2）形容词： 重要的事情 something important anything new nothing special 完全不含水分的混合物 mixture completely free of water She believes that everything fashionable comes from France. 她认为时髦的东西都是来自法国的。 Why don’t we go somewhere quiet? 我们干吗不去一个安静的地方？

3）介词短语： 窗子边的男孩 the boy near the window 第一组的学生 the pupils in Group One a. Soon other people with different forms of the Christian religion arrived in America. b. Trade among countries allows people in each country to use their energies in doing what they do best.

4）不定式短语： the book to read the room to live in the meeting to be held 5）现在分词短语： the girl sitting there the man talking to Ma Li My point is that the frequent complaint of one generation about the one immediately following it is inevitable. 我的观点是：一代人对紧跟其后的另一代人的频繁抱怨是不可避免的。

6) 过去分词短语： the boy named Tom computers made in Japan all parties concerned 有关各方 Carpets woven in Iran and wine produced in France are examples of these special goods. 7) 定语从句： Some songs remind us of the people we love. Videos have changed the ways we play and listen to music. The second reason why nations trade with one another is that it pays to specialize.

Pragmatic Comparison of Chinese and English Language (语用对比） 中国人客气礼貌、谦虚谨慎、体贴关心；西方人个性直率、提倡独立、尊重隐私 。 1.打招呼： 一路辛苦了。 *You must be tired./ You must have had a tiring journey. Did you have a good trip?/ Did you enjoy your trip? /How was the trip?

2. 致谢及回答： 1) 谢谢你的帮助。 ---“别客气。” You’re welcome. 2) 麻烦你帮我买得车票。 ---别客气。That’s all right. 3) 我该走了。占用你那么多时间，真实对不起 ---别客气。Not at all. 4) Thank you for your help. --- * Don’t thank me. It's my duty．（应该说：I'm glad to be of help．/ It's a pleasure.）

3. 关心： 1) It’s cold today. You’d better put on more clothes. 2) I have a cold today. --- * You should drink hot water from time to time. 3) 一路辛苦了。 --- * You must be very tired on the way. （Did you have a good trip?/ Did you enjoy your trip? /How was the trip? ） 4) 成家了吗？有女朋友没有？

4. 客套： 1) 今天饭菜不好，请多包含。来，先干上一杯。 These are the best dishes we’re able to prepare. Please make yourself at home. Now, to everyone, cheers! 2) 小意思，请笑纳。 * It’s a little token. I hope you will like it. 3) 请慢走。 4) “老师，我初出茅庐，不知天高地厚，请老师多多包涵。” * Mr. Wang, I’m a green hand. Please forgive me.

5．恭维： 1) You‘re looking very smart today.（今天您很漂亮。） ---- Thank you．So are you．(谢谢，您也很漂亮。) 2) What a beautiful pen！（好漂亮的钢笔！） ----It came from India．I went there on business last month． 3) Your Japanese is very good．（您的日语很好。） ---- Well，my listening isn't too bad，but I still have a lot of problems with speaking. 4) You did a great job．（干得好！） ----Oh well，it had to happen sometime.（哦，这种事有时会有的。）

6．敬词与谦词 贵国your country,贵校your school 贵府your residence,贵夫人your wife， 贵庚your age 令尊your father,令堂your mother, 令郎your son, 令媛your daughter, 令兄，令妹 殿下Your/His/Her Highness、阁下Your/His/Her Excellency、足下you 世翁your father, 千金your daughter， 泰山father-in-law，东床 your son-in-law

高见your opinion, 高足your student, 高堂one’s parents, 大作your essay 敝校my school, 敝国my country 鄙人I, 拙作my article, 拙见my opinion 贱内my wife 拙荆，糟糠 寒舍=草堂my home (humble home)