定性研究方法 王文宇 2010.7

Quantitative v.s. Qualitative Quantitative research is empirical research where the data are in the form of numbers. Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers.

The Effects of Organization Markers on ESL Learners’Text Understanding Research questions 1) What is the effect of markers on EFL learners’ comprehension of high idea (main ideas)? 2) What is the effect of markers on ESL learners’ comprehension of low ideas (details)?

Method 32 Korean EFL learners were divided into two groups: 1) marker group: listen to a lecture with organization markers; 2) non-marker group: listen to a lecture without organization markers. A summary task was given after listening (to see how much listeners can recall) Mean scores for each of the two groups were counted and compared

Assessing a Whole Language ESL Class A whole language approach emphasizes the learner’s immersion in authentic language environment (e.g., reading and writing are learned through really reading and writing rather than through doing reading and writing exercises). Research question: How does the whole language approach affect ESL students’ learning?

Method Whole Language Approach conducted in an ESL class in a Canadian school (e.g., students chose books to read; they wrote for their own newspaper projects, etc.) Interviews with learners and teachers Students’ self-reflection papers Teachers’ reflective journals Students’ and teachers’ accounts were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of the WL approach.

Chinese students’ perceptions of communicative and non-communicative activities in EFL classroom This study reports the views of 30 Chinese university students on the appropriateness and effectiveness of communicative and non-communicative activities in their EFL courses in China. 1. What are the students’ perceptions of communicative and non-communicative activities in the EFL classroom? 2.What are the students’ perceived difficulties in an EFL class exclusively conducted by a teacher using CLT?

Procedures: 1.30 Chinese English majors answered a questionnaire about the use of communicative and non-communicative techniques in class and their difficulties in using communicative activities 2. 10 out of the 30 students were then chosen for interviews about their perceptions of communicative and non-communicative activities and the difficulties they had encountered while using communicative activities

More Examples of Qualitative Research Wen (1995) examined two students who entered Nanjing University with similar entrance examination scores but differed greatly in Test for English Majors-Band 4. Through interview scripts, observation notes and the students’ diaries, she intended to find out why these two students showed such great differences in their achievement after two years’ study in university. 

More Examples of Qualitative Research Wang and Wen (2002) intended to find out how L2 writers use their L1 in their L2 writing processes and whether the use of L1 changes with the L2 development. 16 English majors across four university levels participated in the study. They were asked to write an argumentative essay in English while thinking-aloud. They were also interviewed immediately after they finished the writing task.

More Examples of Qualitative Research Hyland’s study (2003) explores the relationship between teacher feedback and student revision in two academic writing classes. Using data from teacher think aloud protocols, teacher and student interviews and student texts, it examines the extent to which teachers focused on formal language concerns when they gave feedback and the use that students made of this feedback in their revisions.

Collecting Qualitative Data Interview Think-aloud Diary

What is an Interview? A talk through which the researcher asks the interviewee a series of questions to find out some information about the interviewee.

What is an Interview? Open-ended questions (face-to-face or by telephone) Researcher Interviewee Information (qualitative data)

Types of interviews Unstructured interview Semi-structured interview

Types of interviews Unstructured: interview questions are generated spontaneously in the natural flow of an interaction.

Types of interviews Semi-structured: an interview guide is prepared before the interview begins. The questions in the interview guide need not be taken in any particular order and the actual wording of questions is not determined in advance.

Types of interviews Structured: an interview guide is prepared. The questions are asked in the same sequence and the same wording.

Question Why do we need three types of interviews?

Types of interviews Unstructured interview: used for constructing interview guide Semi-structured interview: most often used Structured interview: used when multiple interviewers involved

Carrying out an Interview Procedures: Step1 Preparing an interview guide Step2 Conducting the interview

Step1 Preparing an interview guide Principle One: Interview questions ≠ research questions

Interview Guide Research question: Do EFL learners experience anxiety in class? If so, what kinds of anxiety do they experience?

Interview Guide 1. Do you like English classes? How do you feel in class? 2. How do you feel when you are asked to answer questions in class? (Please describe your physical and emotional reactions, such as blushing, out of breath, voice shaking, dizziness, stammering, etc.) 3. How do you feel when you give presentations in class? 4. How do you feel when you cannot follow what your teacher is saying? 5. How do you feel when you make mistakes in class? 6. How do you feel when your teacher corrects your mistakes? 7. How do you feel when your classmates laugh at your mistakes?

Step1 Preparing an interview guide Sources of questions Previous research Unstructured interview

Step1 Preparing an interview guide Principle Two: Truly open-ended questions

Is this a good interview question? While reading an English text and encountering an unknown word, do you turn to a dictionary, or ask the teacher for its meaning, or simply skip it?

Truly open-ended questions Allowing interviewees to take whatever direction and whatever words they want in order to respond in their own way

Is this a good interview question? While reading an English text and encountering an unknown word, do you turn to a dictionary, or ask the teacher for its meaning, or simply skip it?

Revised question What do you do when you encounter an unknown word while reading an English passage?

Task: Work out an interview guide Research question: 教师学习英语的方法对其教学方法是否有影响？有何影响？

Interview Guide

学习情况 中（小）学：1）何时开始学英语？2）老师采用何种教学方法、开展哪些课堂活动？3）这些方法和活动对你的英语学习有何作用？哪些方法和活动对提高你的英语水平特别有效？4）课后进行哪些学习活动？对提高英语有何作用？ 大学：1）有哪些英语课程？2）老师采用何种教学方法、开展哪些课堂活动？3）这些方法和活动对你的英语学习有何作用？哪些方法和活动对提高你的英语水平特别有效？ 4）课后进行哪些学习活动？对提高英语有何作用？ 教学情况 1）何时开始教学工作？教授哪些科目？2）采用何种教学方法、开展哪些课堂活动？3）你认为哪些方法和活动对提高学生的英语水平特别有效？为什么？4）是否建议学生课后学习？建议哪些课后学习活动？为什么？ 学习方式对教学方式的影响 你采用这种教学方法/活动是否受你当年学习经历的影响？

Step2 Conducting the Interview What are the useful skills for conducting an effective research interview?

Step2 Conducting the Interview Principle One: Using a well-prepared high-quality audio recorder

Step2 Conducting the Interview Principle Two: Asking more questions than the ones listed in the interview guide.

Step2 Conducting the Interview Principle Three: Using a conversational style. Requiring flexibility & Spontaneity to keep the interview: a) in a natural manner b) on the track

Step2 Conducting the Interview Principle Four: Keep probing.

Probing a. silent probe: remaining quiet and waiting as the interviewee reflecting, gathering thoughts and preparing b. verbal probe: giving further guidance when the interviewee at the end of the thought c. echo probe: suitable use of repetition of words of interviewee to encourage them to continue e.g. I see, you ask your teacher the meaning of the unknown word. Then what else? d. Uh-huh probe: affirmative noise to encourage. e.g. “uh-huh”,or “yes, I see.”

Task: Comment on interviews Listen to the interviews conducted by the student researchers and analyze the strengths and weaknesses in their interviewing skills.

Interview One: Listening strategies 采访者:同学,你好,本次采访是为了研究大学生使用听力策略的情况。您的回答对我们非常重要，请如实回答。本次采访不记名，结果仅用于学术研究。谢谢您的支持与合作！ 采访者:同学我想问一下你喜欢英语吗? 受访者:还行,一般吧 采访者:你是如何看待英语听力的呢 受访者:英语听力可以让我们了解一些课外知识 采访者:哦,好吧,那你一周在英语学习方面的时间大概是多少呢? 受访者:可能一到两个小时吧

Interview One 采访者:那如果按照就是平摊到每天来分呢,一天花在英语学习方面的时间是多少呢 受访者:可能10到15分钟左右 采访者:哦好,那你每周就是花在英语听力方面的时间是多少 受访者:应该也是10到15分钟左右,因为一直在看美剧 采访者:就是每周,10到15分钟?那每天呢 受访者:不是,每天10到15分钟 采访者:那每周呢? 受访者:每周乘一下就是了

Interview One 采访者:能给一个确切的大概时间吗 受访者:一个小时吧 采访者:一个小时左右是吧,好,那第三个问题,您对听力提高设立什么目标了吗 受访者:好像没有 采访者:没有什么目标,那为什么呢 受访者:平时就是看看美剧而已,觉得够用就行了 采访者:那就是把美剧作为英语听力提高的重要方法是吧,唯一方法,应该说 受访者:恩对差不多

Interview One 采访者:我想问一下你是选择何种材料来提高自己的听力能力呢 受访者:一般就是盯着一个经常看的电视剧,不停地循环地看 采访者:不停循环看,大概会看多少遍呢 受访者:到目前为止,Friends 一到九季看到了第4遍了 采访者:恩,第四遍,那除了friends呢 受访者:其他的都是看看情节,看friends的时候就会比较注重他的发音

Interview One 采访者:英语电视剧的话除了美剧,当然还有英剧,英剧你会看吗 受访者:不会,因为资源比较少,其次我也不想学那个英式发音 采访者:哦好,那为什么就是你要以美剧作为你听力提高的材料呢 受访者:因为资源比较广嘛,比较容易得到 采访者:除此之外还有什么呢 受访者:其他的就是美剧比较容易贴近美国人的日常生活吧 采访者:日常生活? 受访者:恩对

Interview One 采访者:还有什么呢,有什么补说的吗 受访者:没有了 采访者:恩好的,那接下来,我想问一下当你在听英语听力的时侯,万一遇到新的单词你会怎么办 受访者:反正看的时候就把那个翻译软件放在边上开着呗,然后碰见不认识的就查一查,看一下它的意思就行 采访者:是每个单词都查吗 受访者:不会,就碰见不认识的,新见的 采访者:不是,每个生词都会查吗 受访者:基本上吧

Interview One 采访者:哦就是 听到不懂的然后就直接查还是整篇听完了再查 受访者:听到了就查呀 采访者:哦好,不会猜测它的意思吗 受访者:会猜 采访者:那就是猜和查字典 受访者:不是遇到一个生词立马就去查,就是说觉得这个生词多次出现,然后觉得有必要了解一下就会去查一下

What is think-aloud? Subjects are required to speak out their inner thoughts while performing a certain language task. It can gain access to the inner thoughts (cognitive process) of subjects. Useful but difficult to carry out.

Example: think-aloud in a reading task When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get good scores on certain kinds of tests or even the ability to do well in school. By intelligence we mean a way of living and behaving, especially in a new or upsetting situation. If we want to test intelligence, we need to find out how a person acts instead of how much he knows what to do.

Example: think-aloud in a reading task For instance, when in a new situation, an intelligent person thinks about the situation, not about himself or what might happen to him. He tries to find out all he can, and then he acts immediately and tries to do something about it. He probably isn't sure how it will all work out, but at least he tries. And, if he can't make things work out right, he doesn't feel ashamed that he failed; he just tries to learn from his mistakes. An intelligent person, even if he is very young, has a special outlook on life, a special feeling about life, and knows how he fits into it.

Example: think-aloud in a reading task If you look at children, you'll see great difference between what we call "bright" children and "not-bright" children. They are actually two different kinds of people, not just the same kind with different amount of intelligence. For example, the bright child really wants to find out about life - he tries to get in touch with everything around him. But, the unintelligent child keeps more to himself and his own dream-world; he seems to have a wall between him and life in general.

这是一个三段的文章，我一般看一下首句是什么。看它是不是符合那种总分结构的文章。When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get good scores on certain kinds of tests or even the ability to do well in school. For instance, If you look at children, 哦显然，不是很明显的总分结构，那我只能一句一句的念了。When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get good scores on certain kinds of tests or even the ability to do well in school. 哦，这是讲了就是intelligence。By intelligence we mean a way of living and behaving, especially in a new or upsetting situation. 哦，它是说，我们指的这个智商方面的东西是讲一种生活呀，行为的一种方式。尤其是面对一种新的或者是让人觉得upsetting 的situation。

If we want to test intelligence, we need to find out how a person acts instead of how much he knows what to do. 哦，原来测试智商是要查出这个人，他是怎么样，他是怎么样行为，而不是他知道了多少，那我们现在的教育更多方面的是告诉了你是什么，然后以知道多少，在试卷上反应出多少来衡量，而没有给出一个实际情况，来考查他实际解决问题的能力。以前我们有个高老师告诉我们要，learn to be 和learn to do is the most important thing, 而不光指是你积累了多少知识。

For instance, when in a new situation, an intelligent person thinks about the situation, not about himself or what might happen to him.举个例子，when in a new situation, an intelligent person thinks about the situation, not about himself or what might happen to him。不光考虑他自己的问题，He tries to find out all he can, and then he acts immediately and tries to do something about it. 哦，他试图去发现他所能做的，然后积极的行动起来去解决问题。这就想到了以前的一个心理老师说，在遇到问题时，不是应该回避，或者一直在想怎么办，而是要理出一个头绪，知道我现在唯一能做的事情是什么，然后立即付诸行动。恩。

He probably isn't sure how it will all work out, but at least he tries He probably isn't sure how it will all work out, but at least he tries. 他可能不知道会有什么用，但他至少行动了，试过了。这个，以前不知那个名人说过一句话，如果我无所畏惧，我会怎么样去做，大概就有点那个意思。And, if he can't make things work out right, he doesn't feel ashamed that he failed; he just tries to learn from his mistakes.这句话我很赞同，就是在做错事情的时候，一点都不要觉得羞愧的，至少我试过，我就没有什么可后悔的。就是我们有些同学的话，比如上口语课也好，他们就不敢说，不敢开口，然后，我会很积极的去说，尽管我的话里面会有很多的错误，但是我还是为我自己能这样积极说而感到自豪的

中 译 英 请将以下划线段落翻译成英文。 母亲的娘家是在北平德胜门外，土城儿外边，通大钟寺的大路上的一个小村里。村里一共有四五家人家，都姓马…… 一岁半，我把父亲“克”死了。兄不到十岁，三姐十二三岁，我才一岁半，全仗母亲独力抚养了。父亲的寡姐跟我们一块儿住，她吸鸦片，她喜摸纸牌，她的脾气极坏。为我们的衣食，母亲要给人家洗衣服，缝补或裁缝衣裳。在我的记忆中，她的手终年是鲜红微肿的。白天，她洗衣服，洗一两大绿瓦盆。她作事永远丝毫也不敷衍，就是屠户们送来的黑如铁的布袜，她也给洗得雪白。晚间，她与三姐抱着一盏油灯，还要缝补衣服，一直到半夜。她终年没有休息，可是在忙碌中她还把院子屋中收拾得清清爽爽。

How is think-aloud carried out? Principle One: Selecting “ideal” subjects

1) Selecting “ideal” subjects Criteria: talkative, capable of thinking- aloud after proper training Three stages: 1. Select subjects for training personality-- talkative 2. Select subjects for think-aloud easiness and willingness 3. Select subjects for data analysis pauses less than 10%

How is think-aloud carried out? Principle Two: Providing sufficient and proper training

2) Providing effective training Demonstration & explanation choose a task that is not related to the study Practices use the real task

江中 王圣俞南游，泊舟江心，既寝，视月明如练，未能寐，使童仆为之按摩。忽闻舟顶如小儿行，踏芦席作响，远自舟尾来，渐近舱户。虑为盗，急起问童，童亦闻之。问答间，见一人伏舟顶上，垂首窥舱内。大愕，按剑呼诸仆，一舟俱醒。告以所见。或疑错误。俄响声又作。群起四顾，渺然无人，惟疏星皎月，漫漫江波而已。众坐舟中，旋见青火如灯状，突出水面，随水浮游，渐近船则火顿灭。即有黑人骤起屹立水上，以手攀舟而行。众噪曰：“必此物也！”欲射之。方开弓，则伏水中不可见矣。问舟人，舟人曰：“此古战场，鬼时出没，其无足怪。”

1) Selecting “ideal” subjects Attention: Choose more than the required number for training.

2) Providing effective training Individual or group training?

How is think-aloud carried out? Principle Three: Using high-quality audio recorder

3) Using a high-quality recorder Check carefully beforehand the sound effect, new batteries, etc. Aim: not to disturb the flow of subject’s thoughts

How is think-aloud carried out? Principle Four: Behaving professionally

4) Behaving professionally Observant but not disturbing Dos: 1. Take notes 2. Remind subjects at long pauses Don’ts: 1. Ask questions 2. Move frequently

Limitations Not natural Not generalizable—subjects too selective Not accurate—thoughts faster than words

What is diary? A first-person account of a language learning experience, documented through regular, candid entries in a personal journal and then analyzed for recurring patterns or salient events. (Bailey,1990:215)

What is diary? A record of learning and teaching experiences: Feelings Attitudes Reflections Awareness of cognitive process

Three requirements Kept by the subjects themselves Kept regularly and honestly Similarities and unique features displayed by subjects to be found

Question What’s the difference between a regular diary and that used as a research tool?

Differences Regular Diary Research Diary Fragmentary, illogical and ungrammatical Little difficulty for others to understand Anything occurring in people’s minds Information relevant to research purpose

Instruction Explain explicitly to the subjects what they are expected to write down

An example Wen (1993) studied the role of learner controllable factors in L2 learning. 10 students were required to keep one-week diaries to record their self-initiated English learning activities in order to find out the differences in the use of learning strategies between good and poor students.

请以日记形式详细记录每日你所进行的英语学习活动.日记包括以下内容: 1. 你进行了哪些活动?为什么选择这些活动? 2. 每项活动花了多少时间? 3. 当你进行每项活动时你的生理和心理状态怎样 (生理状态:如疲倦或精力充沛; 心理状态: 如注意力集中或不集中)? 4. 你如何评价每项活动的作用 (如此项活动是否能提高你的语言能力)? 5. 在进行每项活动时你采取了哪些策略? (请尽量详细描述)

Language Learning Project Write an entry of a page or two about your LL project in a notebook, and the journal should include things as follows: 1) what do you think of your LL project? 2) what have you done this week? 3) how do you go on with it? (whether it works, if you have had a good time) 4) how does this project help with your language learning?

Advantages Less time-consuming Less technically demanding

Limitations Validity Lack of information beyond awareness Difficulty in reading & understanding

Analysis of Qualitative Data The researcher tries to identify categories emerging from the data which may form further patterns or variations.

1. Transcribing audio recordings 2. Segmenting data 3. Displaying data Four steps 1. Transcribing audio recordings 2. Segmenting data 3. Displaying data 4. Drawing categories

1) Transcribing audio recordings Faithfulness: Take down everything you can hear. Ask the subject to clarify the unclear part. Standardization: Develop a set of codes that can indicate pause, stress, hesitation, etc.

这是一个三段的文章，我一般看一下首句是什么。看它是不是符合那种总分结构的文章。When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get good scores on certain kinds of tests or even the ability to do well in school. For instance, If you look at children, 哦显然，不是很明显的总分结构，那我只能一句一句的念了。When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get good scores on certain kinds of tests or even the ability to do well in school. 哦，这是讲了就是intelligence。By intelligence we mean a way of living and behaving, especially in a new or upsetting situation. 哦，它是说，我们指的这个智商方面的东西是讲一种生活呀，行为的一种方式。尤其是面对一种新的或者是让人觉得upsetting 的situation。

2) Segmenting Data segment the data with reference to each specific research question so that the irrelevant data can be put aside.

An Example Research questions: Why do students use L1 in writing in L2? What attitudes do they hold towards the use of L1 in L2 writing process? Research method: interview

“…I used Chinese at some moments to plan ideas “…I used Chinese at some moments to plan ideas. For instance, I tried to think about the advantages and disadvantages of mobile phones, what appeared in my mind was the information I had read about mobile phones in books and magazines, or watched on TV. I remembered a TV commercial about mobile phones: a man’s using it while surfing. Very cool! Such information was of course in Chinese and naturally I talked it out in Chinese …I think it is too much to require us to think totally in English, especially for those whose English is not very good. After all, Chinese is our mother tongue. Only if I grew up in an English-speaking environment, could I think in English. Teachers told us what we should attend to when we were writing, and we would naturally recalled these dos and don’ts when we were writing, and this recalling was naturally in Chinese. In terms of these writing techniques and writing habits, I don’t think it necessary to think in English. English should be used when we are considering the expressions or diction and making of specific sentences…” (Subject 2.4)

“…I used Chinese at some moments to plan ideas “…I used Chinese at some moments to plan ideas. For instance, I tried to think about the advantages and disadvantages of mobile phones, what appeared in my mind was the information I had read about mobile phones in books and magazines, or watched on TV. I remembered a TV commercial about mobile phones: a man’s using it while surfing. Very cool! Such information was of course in Chinese and naturally I talked it out in Chinese” (Subject 2.4) “I think it is too much to require us to think totally in English, especially for those whose English is not very good. After all, Chinese is our mother tongue. Only if I grew up in an English-speaking environment, could I think in English. Teachers told us what we should attend to when we were writing, and we would naturally recalled these dos and don’ts when we were writing, and this recalling was naturally in Chinese. In terms of these writing techniques and writing habits, I don’t think it necessary to think in English. English should be used when we are considering the expressions or diction and making of specific sentences…” (Subject 2.4)

3) Displaying Data Put the segments of the interview data into a file

Reasons for L1 use (Interview data) I made English sentences through translation. I know it is not good, but Chinese words and sentences always come to my mind much more quickly than English. I have to translate throughout the draft. (Subject 1.1)    I just can’t think in English. I guess there’s always a translation process involved in my writing in English. I plan sentences in Chinese and then translate the Chinese sentence into English. I want to make sentences directly in English, but I just can’t do it for the moment. (Subject 1.3)

Reasons for L1 use (Interview data) When I plan ideas, I usually try to think deeply. When I write it down, I would put it in a simple way. For example, in the argumentative writing task, when I thought about the disadvantages of beepers and mobile phones, I thought of the disparity between the rich and the poor in China which could be shown by the possession of a mobile phone. If I had been thinking in English, I would have difficulty expressing this idea. So, Chinese enables me to think deeply, but English does not. (Subject 2.2) When I tried to think about the advantages and disadvantages of mobile phones, what appeared in my mind was the information I had read about mobile phones in books and magazines, or watched on TV. I remembered a TV commercial about mobile phones: a man’s using it while surfing. Very cool! Such information was of course in Chinese and naturally I talked it out in Chinese. (Subject 2.4)

Reasons for L1 use (Interview data) It’s actually unnecessary to plan or review the organization in English, because this is not what I should write down. So I need not bother to think about it in English. (Subject 3.1) I usually think in Chinese when I’m planning ideas. I think ideas are very important, and I use Chinese at such important moments, because I feel I can think accurately and thoroughly in Chinese. But I don’t have this feeling when I think in English; I just haven’t enough confidence with my English. I would feel very unsure if I planned ideas in English. (Subject 3.2)

4) Drawing categories Give a name to a certain idea (identify the concepts). Compare concepts to establish categories.

Reasons for L1 use (Interview data) I made English sentences through translation. I know it is not good, but Chinese words and sentences always come to my mind much more quickly than English. I have to translate throughout the draft. (Subject 1.1)—have to use L1   

Identify concepts Subject 1.1: have to use L1 Subject 1.3: can’t think in L2 Subject 2.2: think deeply in L1 Subject 2.4: recall L1 ideas in L1 Subject 3.1: unnecessary to think in L2 Subject 3.2: think accurately in L1

Task 2: Establish categories 1.

Establish categories 1. Constrained by language inadequacy (have to use L1 + can’t think in L1)  2. Motivated by pragmatic concerns 2.1 Achieving effective thinking (think deeply in L1 + think accurately in L1)   2.2 No need to use L2 (unnecessary to think in L2)   3. Triggered by L1 memories (recall L1 ideas in L1)

Writing Task Write an argumentation of about 200 words on the following topic:   Nowadays beepers and mobile phones are becoming more and more popular in our life. Some people think they bring us much convenience, while others argue they make more trouble. Which view do you agree with? Use your own ideas, knowledge or experience to generate support for your argument. Time limit: 45 min.

Think-aloud Data (1) 六点二十九 (2) “Write a composition of about 200 words on the following topic: Nowadays, beepers and mobile phones are becoming more and more popular in our life. Some people think they bring us much convenience, while others argue they make more trouble. Which view do you agree with? Use your own ideas, knowledge or experience to generate support for your argument.” (3) 我都不知道我同意哪个 (4) “Some people think they bring us much convenience, while others argue they make more trouble”. (5) convenience, trouble, 哎，我觉得是不太好，可是也不至于带来 trouble, trouble. Um … um …(7) 好象没有什么 experience, 从来没有用过

Think-aloud Data (8) argument, 就是 if you have a BP, you are always, um … 不对 (9) convenience, convenience (10) 到底和图画是不一样的 (11) um, idea, 哎，我是知道，好象那个有射线对大脑不好, 可是那没办法写 (12) um … nowadays 哎哟，我现在决定我到底同意哪一个 (13) um, convenient, 肯定毫无疑问是 convenient. (15) um, convenient to us, 有些什么 convenient? 第一个就是速度比较快，可是有贫富差距 (16) make more trouble. 有些什么 trouble? 噪音，噪音吧… 多可爱呀。在车上，在车上打电话，好象是不太好，看对谁了(17) 我觉得convenient这个呢，可能好写一点，肯定是很俗套的…

Think-aloud Data (27)想想看 (28) 周围人，周围人看见在打，这个就感觉挺讨厌的，精神病样子，在马路角打 (29) um, 想想 convenience, convenience, convenience (30) 肯定是回电就比较快对吧 (31) 哎哟，好象我已经把自己说服了，确实蛮trouble的troublesome, troublesome (32) 要不要那个title? 要title … (33) How many, now, trouble可不可数? 可数 (34) make more trouble (35) um, how, (36) the title, the title 要么就interesting的, 要么就eye-catching (37) 我先写作文再写title吧 (38) 怎么开头? (39) 第一段引出观点, 然后三个 supporting ideas, 最后一个结尾 (40) 开头, 开头…

Think-aloud Data (41) um, 抄你第一句话 (42) Nowadays, beepers and mobile phones are becoming more and more popular in our life … (43) It is, it is really, um, really a sign of high-tech, (44) high-tech 大写还是小写 “a sign of high-tech” (45) “is really a” result of high-tech development, “high tech development”. (46)“It is really a result of high-tech development” 是它的结果还是它的象征? 象征 (47) um, rapid, um, it is, the, it is the sign of, highly, highly, deve-, rapid develop 快速发展的，快速发展的高科技的象征 不对呀 (48) It is really a sign of high-tech, a rapid develop, a high paced 快节奏的高科技，high paced, 快节奏的 (49) a sign of, is really a sign of high-paced modern life, as well as …

Think-aloud Data (83) BP and mobile phone, mobile phone actually have already been, have already been a tool, have already been, if not directly, it not directly, actually have already been, if not directly … a tool of committing crimes. (84) 我希望我写的是convincing的 (85) For those who doesn’t, don’t … it really takes patience and tolerance, it really takes patience and tolerance, to see someone making a phone call, at the corner of a main street …

Think-aloud Data (100) “For those who don’t have a BP or a mobile phone, it really takes patience and tolerance to see someone making a phone call at the corner of a main street, or even at the front door of a quite large, quite magnificent, magnificent hotel. People like to show off their wealth by using a mobile phone in a public place, such as in a bus, and that disobeys the social convention which teaches us from our early years not to make a noise in a public place”. (101)结尾和开头照应一下 (102) Taking all the above into consideration, take all the above, take all the above into consideration, and see how many troubles have BP and mobile phones brought about to our daily life. (103) Troublesome BP and Mobile Phones. (104) 写完了

Task: Analysis of the think-aloud data Analyze the think-aloud data to address the following research questions: When do EFL learners tend to rely on their L1 during the L2 composing process?

Categorization of Composing Activities Task-responding activities Idea-generating activities Idea-organizing activities Sentence-forming activities Process-controlling activities

Composing Activities 1. Task-responding activities: analyzing the writing requirement or the writing prompt, commenting on the writing prompt or the writing task itself. 再看一下它的要求。Which view do you agree? Use your own ideas, knowledge and experience to generate support for your argument. 就是有些人认为它好，有些人认为它不好，给我们带来许多方便，一个就是很多麻烦。(Subject 1.1)   好难噢，我又没写过那个argumentation. (Subject 2.1)

Composing Activities 2. Idea-generating activities: planning, evaluating and reviewing ideas.   就讲对于我个人的影响 trouble 虽然也不是很多，但是还是写 trouble 吧，trouble 的感受深一些. 那我既然两百字的文章不可能覆盖所有的观点，那我就选择部分的，选择部分来写吧. 它对于 businessmen 来说肯定是便利一点, 对于学生的话，对于学生，当然一方面有利一方面有弊嘛，比如说到毕业的时候找工作方便, 弊嘛，干扰，干扰太多 ... freedom 变少 … (Subject 4.3)

Composing Activities 3. Idea-organizing activities: planning, evaluating and reviewing the organization at both macro and micro level.   怎么开头? 第一段引出观点, 然后三个 supporting ideas, 最后一个结尾 (Subject 2.2) 就整个这么一段，没分段。还是分一段比较好。(Subject 1.4)

Composing Activities 4. Sentence-forming activities: formulating and reviewing sentences. In the past，in the past， I used to using， I used to 联络，联络怎么说呢? 唉，换个词 Um, 只能说 keep in touch with 了。I was, be used to doing， I was used to keeping, keeping in touch with 能用现在进行时吗? 保持联系，一直保持联系，对，可以。 “I was used to keeping I touch with” my friends, my friends, 通过电话，介词是什么? Um, by telephone by telephone . (Subject 1.4)

Composing Activities 5. Process-controlling activities: controlling the writing procedures, the amount of words, the use of time.   Ok, that’s it. I’ll read it through to check up. (Subject 4.4) 不知道有几个字了。要两百个字，看看。(Subject 1.3) 哎呀，时间不多了。先列个提纲。(Subject 2.3) 要先想清楚，思路才会清楚，不能糊糊涂涂。(Subject 3.3)

Teacher Questions Below is an excerpt of teacher-student conversations in the Intensive English Reading class. Please focus your attention on how the teacher asks questions (the italicized parts) in this excerpt.

Teacher Questions T: So, who’d like to read this paragraph?(Q1) Any volunteer?(Q2) (S1 raises her hand.) T: Sam. Good. (S1 reads aloud.) T: Thank you, Sam. T: So, what is this paragraph about?(Q3) S2: It’s about peer pressure. T: About peer pressure. Lily, do you agree?(Q4) S3: Yes, I agree.

Teacher Questions T: Then what is peer pressure? (Q5) (T points at S4) S4: Er… Sorry, what is your question? T: Alex, are you with us? (Q6) Or are you daydreaming?(Q7) S4: Sorry. T: OK. Linda, what does “peer pressure” refer to here? (Q8) S5: It refers to … (Unclear utterance) T: Sorry, what did you say? (Q9) S5: It refers to competitions among students. T: Good. So, Alex, now you know what “peer pressure” means here? (Q10) S4: Yes.

Teacher Questions T: Do you feel such kind of pressure? (Q11) S4: No. T: No? (Q12) T: Why? (Q13) S4: Because I don’t want to compete with others. T: Interesting. What about you, Alice?(Q14) S6: Yes, I do feel the peer pressure. T: You do? (Q15) S6: Yes. Because I think I’m not a good student. I should work hard to keep up with others. T: Alice, you ARE a good student. So is this peer pressure? (Q16) It seems to me more like self-induced pressure. OK, Chris, do you have any questions concerning this paragraph? (Q17)

Categorization .

Categorization Echoic questions are those which ask for the repetition of an utterance or confirmation that an utterance has been interpreted as intended. Epistemic questions are those which serve the purpose of acquiring information.

Categorization Categories Sub-categories Examples Echoic Comprehension checks Q10, Q17 Clarification requests Q9, Q15 Confirmation checks Q12 Epistemic Referential questions Q4, Q11, Q13, Q14 Display questions Q3, Q5, Q8 Rhetoric questions Q16 Classroom management Q1, Q2, Q6, Q7

References 《外语教学中的科研方法》(刘润清，1999，外语教学与研究出版社) 《应用语言学研究方法与论文写作》(文秋芳，2001，外语教学与研究出版社) Research Methods for English Language Teachers (McDonough, J. & McDonough, S. 2000, 外语教学与研究出版社) Research Methods in Language Learning (Nunan, D. 1994, CUP)

References Second Language Research: Methodology and Design (Mackey, A. & Gass, S. M. 2005, Lawrence Erlbaum) Qualitative Research in Applied Linguistics (Heigham, J. & Croker, R. A. 2009, Palgrave Macmillan)